Chemical tests for Basic and Acid Radicalss

We can recognize the results of reactions of compounds specifically mentioned of the specification and the results of tests for simple ions: carbonate, hydrogen carbonate, sulfate(VI), sulphite, chloride, bromide, iodide, nitrate, ammonium, lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, strontium and barium

Tests

Ion	Formula	Test	Observations
Carbonate	CO32-	Test 1 Heat the solid in a test tube with a Bunsen burner. It should decompose producing the oxide and carbon dioxide. E.g. Test for the gas using lime water solution.	Limewater should turn from colorless to cloudy in the presence of carbon dioxide due to precipitation of calcium carbonate.
		Test 2 Add dilute HCl to the solid. Test for the gas evolved using lime water solution.	Vigorous effervescence. Limewater should turn from colorless to cloudy in the presence of carbon dioxide due to precipitation of calcium carbonate.
Hydrogen carbonate	HCO3-	Test Add calcium chloride to a hydrogen carbonate solution.	No precipitate forms since calcium hydrogen carbonate is soluble.
Sulphate (VI)	SO42-	Test Add barium chloride solution acidified with dilute HCl to the test solution.	White precipitate of barium sulfate forms.
Sulphite	SO32-	Test Warm the sulphite with dilute HCl. Test for gases using acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution (or paper)	The solution turns green.
Chloride	Cl-	Test 1 Add concentrated sulphuric acid to the solid chloride.	White steamy acidic fumes are seen - HCl fumes.
		Test 2 Add dilute nitric acid to a solution of a chloride to acidify the solution. This eliminates any carbonates or sulphites. Add silver nitrate to the solution. Add dilute ammonia solution.	White precipitate of AgCl forms. Solid dissolves.
Bromide	Br-	Test 1 Add concentrated sulphuric acid to the solid bromide.	Steamy brownish acidic fumes are seen.
		Test 2' Add dilute nitric acid to a solution of a bromide to acidify the solution. This eliminates any carbonates or sulphites. Add silver nitrate to the solution. Add concentrated ammonia solution.	Cream precipitate of AgBr forms. Solid dissolves.
Iodide	I-	Test 1 Add concentrated sulphuric acid to the solid iodide.	Purple acidic fumes are seen. The mixture turns to a brown slurry.
		Test 2 Add dilute nitric acid to a solution of a iodide to acidify the solution. This eliminates any carbonates or sulphites. Add silver nitrate to the solution. Add concentrated ammonia solution.	Yellow precipitate of AgI forms. Solid is insoluble.
Nitrate	NO3-	Test 1 Heat solid nitrate. If group 1 solid (not Li) then will decompose to give the nitrite and oxygen. All other solid nitrates decompose to give the metal oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.	Oxygen gas is evolved that will relight a glowing splint. Brown gas is seen (NO2). Oxygen gas is also evolved and will relight a glowing splint.
		Test 2 Boil nitrate solution with aluminium/Devarda’s alloy, in sodium hydroxide solution. Test vapour with red litmus paper.	Litmus paper turns blue in the presence of ammonia.
Ammonium	NH4+	Test Warm ammonium compound with NaOH. Test vapours immediately using damp red litmus paper.	NH 3 turns the litmus paper blue.
Lithium	Li+	Test Dip nichrome wire in HCl. Dip wire in solid. Heat wire in centre of flame. Observe colour of flame.	A carmine red flame is seen.
Sodium	Na+	Test Dip nichrome wire in HCl. Dip wire in solid. Heat wire in centre of flame. Observe colour of flame.	A yellow flame is seen.
Potassium	K+	Test Dip nichrome wire in HCl. Dip wire in solid. Heat wire in centre of flame. Observe colour of flame.	A lilac flame is seen.
Magnesium	Mg2+	Test Add NaOH solution to the magnesium solid.	A white solid forms which is insoluble in excess NaOH(aq). This is Mg(OH)2(s)
Calcium	Ca2+	Test Dip nichrome wire in HCl. Dip wire in solid. Heat wire in centre of flame. Observe colour of flame.	A brick red flame is seen.
Strontium	Sr2+	Test Dip nichrome wire in HCl. Dip wire in solid. Heat wire in centre of flame. Observe colour of flame.	A crimson red flame is seen.
Barium	Ba2+	Test Dip nichrome wire in HCl. Dip wire in solid. Heat wire in centre of flame. Observe colour of flame.	A apple green flame is seen.

b) Recognise the chemical tests for simple gases, to include hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ammonia, chlorine, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide

Tests

Name	Formula	Test	Observations
Hydrogen	H2	Ignite gas.	Squeaky pop is heard.
Oxygen	O2	Place a glowing splint in a sample of the gas.	The glowing splint relights.
Carbon dioxide	CO2	Bubble gas through limewater (saturated solution of calcium hydroxide)	A solution turns from colourless to cloudy. A white (milky) precipitate of calcium carbonate forms which is sparingly soluble.
Ammonia	NH3	Test for gas using damp red litmus paper.	Litmus paper turns blue.
Chlorine	Cl2	Test 1 Test for gas using damp litmus paper (red or blue)	Chlorine bleaches the litmus paper very quickly.
		Test 2 Test for gas using moist starch-iodide paper.	The paper turns blue-black.
		Test 3 Pass gas through a solution of a bromide.	The solution turns from colourless to orange.
		Test 4 Pass gas through a solution of an iodide.	The solution turns from colourless to brown (possibly with a black precipitate, iodine).
Nitrogen dioxide	NO2	Not many tests for this gas.	The gas is brown.
Sulphur dioxide	SO2	Test 1 Bubble gas through a solution of potassium dichromate (VI) dissolved in sulphuric acid.	The solution turns from orange to green.
		Test 2 Bubble gas through a solution of potassium manganate (VII) dissolved in sulphuric acid.	The solution turns from purple to colourless.

c) Describe the techniques used in volumetric analysis and enthalpy change measurements

Volumetric analysis

Volumetric analysis (titration) involves the reaction between two solutions. For one solution, both the volume and the concentration are known; for the other, the volume only is known. Apparatus used includes a burette, a pipette and a volumetric flask.

What is a standard solution?

A solution for which concentration is accurately known. The concentration may have been found by a previous titration or by weighing the solute and making a solution of known volume. Such a solution is a primary standard solution.

How is a 250cm3 standard solution prepared?

·         Make sure that the balance is clean and dry. Wipe it with a damp cloth.

·         Place the weighing bottle on the pan and take the balance (i.e. re-zero it)

·         Take the bottle off the balance and add solid to it. This ensures that no spillages fall on the pan.

·         Take the balance of the weighing bottle + solid and find the balance of solid by subtraction.

·         Replace on balance, and if the required amount is added, withdraw the mass.

·         When you have the required amount, write its value down immediately.

·         Wash out a 250cm3 volumetric flask three times using pure water.

·         Transfer the solid to a 250cm3 volumetric flask using a funnel, and wash out the weighing bottle into the flask through the funnel using distilled water.

·         Add about 100cm3 of distilled water to the flask.

·         Stir the solution using a glass rod until all the solid visibly dissolves into a solution.

·         Wash all remaining apparatus including the glass rod, funnel and transfer the rest of this to the flask.

·         Make up to 250cm3 with distilled water so that the bottom of the meniscus just touches the 250cm3 mark.

·         Attach a stopper to the flask.

·         Shake the flask vigorously and/or invert the flask 5 or 6 times to create a solution with uniform concentration.

·         Concentration of solution = mass of solid used/molar mass of solid x 1000/250 (units moldm-3)

Using the pipette

·         A glass bulb pipette will deliver the volume stated on it within acceptable limits only.

·         Using a pipette filler, draw a little of the solution to be used into the pipette and use this to rinse the pipette.

·         Fill the pipette to about 2-3cm3 above the mark. Pipette fillers are difficult to adjust accurately, so quickly remove the filler and close the pipette with your forefinger (not thumb). Release the solution until the bottom of the meniscus is on the mark.

·         Immediately transfer the pipette to the conical flask in which you will do the titration, and allow the solution to dispense under gravity.

Using the burette

·         Making sure that the tap is shut, add about 10-15cm3 of the appropriate solution to the burette and rinse it out, not forgetting to open the tap and rinse the jet.

·         Close the tap and fill the burette. A small funnel should be used to add the solution but be careful not to overfill the funnel.

·         Remove the funnel, because titrating with a funnel in the burette can lead to serious error if a drop of liquid in the funnel stem falls into the burette during the titration.

·         Bring the meniscus on to the scale by opening the tap to allow solution to pass through the burette. There is no particular reason to bring the meniscus exactly to the zero mark.

·         Make sure that the burette is full to the tip of the jet.

·         After a suitable indicator has been added to the solution in the conical flask, swirl the flask under the burette with one hand whilst adjusting the burette tap with your other hand.

·         Add the solution in the burette to the conical flask slowly, swirling the flask all the time.

·         As the endpoint is approached, the indicator will change colour more slowly. The titrant should be added drop by drop near to the endpoint.

·         Repeat the titration until you have three concordant titres, i.e. volumes that are similar. This means within 0.2cm3 or better if you have been careful. Taking the mean of three tires that differ by 1cm3 or more is no guarantee of an accurate answer.

Common indicators

·         Methyl orange - yellow in alkali, red in acid & orange in neutral solutions(usually the end point of a titration)

·         Phenolphthalein - pink in alkali, colourless in acid.

Enthalpy change measurements

·         Weigh a spirit lamp (containing a liquid alcohol) using a balance accurate to 3 decimal places. Record the mass measured.

·         Use a measuring cylinder to put 100 cm3 of distilled water into a small beaker and clamps this at a fixed height above the spirit lamp (about 2 cm).

·         Record the initial temperature of the water using a thermometer.

·         Light the lamp using a burning splint.

·         Heat the water using the spirit lamp until the temperature has gone up by about 10C. Stir the water with the thermometer the whole time.

·         Put a cap on the spirit to stop the alcohol burning. The lid stops also stops further evaporation of the liquid alcohol.

·         Reweigh the spirit lamp and record the mass.

·         Calculate the enthalpy change

Possible sources of error

·         There may be heat loss due to the apparatus used and heat may have dissipated through the insulating material --> should use a polystyrene cup and insulation like a lid.

·         The specific heat capacity and density of water are used (and not of HCl).

·         The masses of solid added to the acid are ignored.

·         It is assumed that the specific heat capacity of the polystyrene cup is negligible.

·         Some heat is lost when the hydrogen or carbon dioxide are evolved in the reactions.

d) Describe the techniques used in simple organic preparations such as distillation and heating under reflux

Heating under reflux - This allows reactions to occur slowly, over a long period of time, without any loss of volatile liquid. The solvent evaporates and is condensed and returns to the flask.

Many organic reactions are slow and require prolonged heating

·         To achieve this without loss of liquid, reaction mixtures are heated in a flask carrying a vertical condenser.

·         This is heating under reflux; the solvent is condensed and returned to the flask, so the mixture can be heated as long as desired.

·         To heat the round bottomed flask, either use a water bath, an oil bath or a heated plate mantle. A Bunsen burner isn’t really suitable.

Simple distillation

To separate a volatile solvent from a mixture

·         Simple distillation is used where a volatile component has to be separated from a mixture, the other components of the mixture being very much volatile or non-volatile.

·         The mixture is heated.

·         The fraction that boils is collected within the temperature range of the fraction. (normally 1 or 2 degrees before the boiling temperature)

·         The condenser cools the fraction so it distils and is collected in the receiving flask.

Fractional distillation

To separate mixtures of volatile liquids.

·         Re-crystallisation - Used to purify a solid material by removing both soluble and insoluble impurities. The choice of solvent is important. The substance must be easily soluble in the boiling solvent and much less soluble at room temperature. This ensures the smallest possible loss of material, although some loss is inevitable with this technique.

Re-crystallisation method

·        Dissolve the solid in the minimum amount of boiling solvent. This ensures that the solution is saturated with respect to the main solute but not with respect to the impurities, which are present in much smaller amounts.

·        Filter the hot mixture through a preheated filter funnel. This removes insoluble impurities. The hot funnel is necessary to prevent the solute crystallising and blocking the funnel. Filtration under vacuum using a Buchner funnel is often preferred, because it is fast.

·        Cool the hot filtrate, either to room temperature or, if necessary, in a bath of iced water. Rapid cooling gives small crystals, slow cooling large ones. The large crystals are often less pure.

·        Filter the cold mixture using a Buchner funnel.

·        Wash the crystals with a small amount of cold solvent. This removes any impurity remaining on the surface of the crystals. A small amount of cold solvent is used so that the crystals aren’t washed away / don’t dissolve.

·        Suck the crystals as dry as possible on the filter.

·        Transfer the crystals to a desiccator to dry. Drying between filter paper is sometimes recommended, but it is a very poor method.

Melting point determination

This is used to determine the purity of the re-crystallisation solid. Place small amount of the solid in the sealed end of a capillary tube. Place in the melting point apparatus. A sharp melting point over a small range shows purity, when compared with the set-book value of a higher melting point, that indicates an impure solid.

Organic tests

·         Collect 10 cm³ of the samples.

·         Test the samples in the following order

·         Alkenes – bromine water --> decolourises --> alkene

·         Alcohols – Spatula of solid PCl5. Test fumes with damp litmus paper --> litmus red? White fumes near ammonia? --> alcohol

·         Halogenoalkane – Add NaOH, ethanol as solvent. Shake and warm for 3 minutes. Cool and add nitric acid + silver nitrate. --> white = chloride; cream = bromide; yellow = iodide. --> Confirm with ammonia

·         Alkane, the substance left is the alkane.

e) recall and interpret details of the chemistry of the elements and compounds listed in Units 1 and 2 of this specification

this includes the chemistry of Groups 1, 2 and 7 and the chemistry associated with the organic compounds listed in topic 2.2

Sulphate solubility

If a solution of any sulphate is added to a solution of a group 2 metal compound then a precipitate is likely.

Group 2 ion in solution	Effect of adding a sulphate solution
Mg2+	No precipitate, MgSO4 is soluble
Ca2+	White precipitate of CaSO4
Sr2+	White precipitate of SrSO4
Ba2+	White precipitate of BaSO4

Hydroxide solubility

If sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of a group 2 compound then a precipitate is likely.

Group 2 ion in solution	Effect of adding a hydroxide solution
Mg2+	Faint white precipitate of Mg(OH)2
Ca2+	Faint white precipitate of Ca(OH)2
Sr2+	Faint white precipitate of Sr(OH)2 on standing
Ba2+	No precipitate, Ba(OH)2 is soluble

Heating carbonates and nitrates

Substance	Effect of heat
Lithium and all group 2 carbonates	Carbon dioxide detected
Sodium and potassium carbonates	No effect (except water of crystallisation may be given off)
Sodium and potassium nitrates	Oxygen only gas evolved
Lithium and all group 2 nitrates	Nitrogen dioxide and oxygen evolved

Action of heat on compounds

·         Carbonates - Carbon dioxide is given off.

·         Hydrogencarbonates - Carbon dioxide and water formed.

·         Group 1 nitrates - Nitrite and oxygen formed.

·         Group 2 nitrates - Oxide, brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide and oxygen formed.

Distinguishing between hydrocarbons

·         Alkane: Burn /oxidise/combust them. They will burn with a yellow flame and form CO2 and H2O (limited supply of CO).

·         Alkene: A yellow, sootier flame is produced (due to the extra carbon and higher ratio of carbon:hydrogen).

Identifying some functional groups

·         Alkene - Add to orange bromine water. The alkene will decolourise it.

·         Halogenalkane - Heat with sodium hydroxide solution. Acidify with dilute nitric acid and then test with silver nitrate solution as with inorganic halides.

·         Alcohols or carboxylic acids containing C-OH - In a dry test tube (i.e. dry alcohol), add PCl5. Misty fumes of HCl are produced, which turns blue litmus paper red.

Distinguishing between different classes of alcohol

Primary - Add PCl5. Warm it with aqueous potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) and dilute H2SO4. Misty fumes are given off and the colour changed from orange to green --> aldehyde.

Secondary - Misty fumes, changes to green --> ketone.

Tertiary - Misty fumes, no colour change.

Specification

f) interpret quantitative and qualitative results

g) devise and plan simple experiments based on the chemistry and techniques summarised in a to e above Normally the last question on the paper. It will ask you to identify certain compounds from four. E.g. titrations, how to make a standard solution, how to titrate, identify QCO3 when heating it where Q is a group 2 metal ion.

h) evaluate error in quantitative experiments see Appendix I for material available to assist centres in teaching this area Percentage error = absolute uncertainty/actual value x 100%

j) comment on safety aspects of experiments based on supplied data or recall of the chemistry of the compounds listed in Units l and 2. Safety considerations should relate to specific experiments not be of a general nature it will be assumed that students wear eye protection during all practical work.

Halogens are toxic and harmful by inhalation, although iodine is much less so than chlorine or bromine, because it is a solid. Chlorine and bromine must always be used in a fume cupboard. Liquid bromine causes serious burns an must be handled with gloves.

Ammonia is toxic. Concentrated ammonia solutions should be handled in the fume cupboard.

Concentrated mineral acids are corrosive. If split on the hands, washing with plenty of water is usually enough, but advice must be sought. Acid in the eye requires immediate attention and prompt professional medical attention.

Barium chloride solution and chromates and dichromates are extremely poisonous and so should be used in the fume cupboard/should not be inhaled.

Sodium or potassium hydroxide or concentrated ammonia in the eye is extremely serious and must always receive professional and immediate attention. Sodium hydroxide and other alkali metal hydroxides are amongst the most damaging of all common substances to skin and other tissue. Wear gloves, goggles and an apron when handling these solutions in high concentrations.

General safety

·         Toxic/carcinogenic – use gloves, fume cupboard

·         Flammable – Water baths, no naked fumes.

·         Harmful gases – Use fume cupboard

·         Corrosive – wear goggles/gloves

·         Spillage of concentrated acid – wash with plenty of water.